mangrove restoration
after planting, another important step in restoration involves monitoring and learning from what works or what does not work and why. valuable publications to consider are a report on monitoring mangrove restoration from space and a manual on mangrove restoration for the pacific island region .
recognising the need for simple and accessible instructions for those keen to take action, the mangrove action project (map) has produced a guide to ecological mangrove restoration (emr) in 6 steps. map uses the community based ecological mangrove restoration (cbemr) approach, emphasising the importance of community participation. the mangrove restoration website holds 2000 + scientific articles concerning mangrove restoration – a resource not to be missed .
welcome to the mangrove restoration website. our goal is to ensure the survival of the worlds various mangrove species through preservation and conservation .
to improve the success of restoration and address many of the issues associated with the current paradigm for mangrove restoration, there is a need to develop an evidence based approach to the planning and implementation of mangrove restoration projects. the current thesis demonstrates the need for an evidence based approach to mangrove restoration through implementation of case studies in lower intertidal mangrove communities of the ngao river, located in the kraburi river estuary, ranong province, southern thailand and development of a series of recommendations on how to incorporate this improved evidence base into different phases of mangrove restoration projects .
building from the world of opportunities map, which demonstrates that 2 billion hectares of deforested and degraded lands worldwide have the potential for forest landscape restoration, this new map will add an assessment of restoration potential as it relates to climate change adaptation and mitigation – including priority areas for mangrove restoration .
iucn and the nature conservancy are producing a global map with cutting edge analysis on the potential for, and challenges to, mangrove restoration. the map aims to stimulate commitment among decision - makers and investors for mangrove ecosystem restoration on a landscape scale .
teas hj. ecology and restoration of mangrove shorelines in florida. environmental conservation. 1977; 4 (01): 51–58 .
mangrove forest restoration projects undertaken globally to date have had significant issues and limitations and
most attempts to restore mangroves often fail completely or fail to achieve the stated goals
( lewis, 2005). the root cause of many of the issues associated with mangrove restoration is that knowledge of the underlying factors controlling spatial patterns in mangroves is often lacking or not integrated into design of restoration projects, impeding the successful restoration of these critical ecosystems .
the mangrove diversity and restoration experiment at gazi bay was established in july 2004. three mangrove species were planted at an open, degraded site that had been mangrove forest ca. 35 years before. its key goals were to study (1) the potential for mangrove restoration and (2) the effects of species richness on ecosystem recovery .
two similar areas, two similar sets of problems, two similar approaches to solve them. what made one mangrove restoration project succeed and the other not ?
over the past 40 years, lewis has pioneered a different method of mangrove restoration that works far better. in fact, he’s established mangrove forests in more than 20 countries around the world. the method — which he calls ecological mangrove restoration — is more difficult and less photogenic than planting pretty rows of seedlings. but it may be our best shot at bringing back the world’s mangroves .
mangrove planting is hugely popular, but the majority of planting efforts fail to restore functional mangrove forests andwe can learn from these experiences. successful restoration results in the establishment of a sizeable, diverse, functional and self - sustaining mangrove forest that offers benefits for nature and people .
iucn and the nature conservancy (tnc) are helping channel this increased momentum by building key knowledge products and tools that can help restoration practitioners determine where and how to restore degraded mangroves. with support of the bmub - iki funded “forest ecosystem rehabilitation project, ” iucn and tnc are developing a global map of mangrove restoration potential as a means to support and encourage the growing interest in restoration. this work, led by tom worthington (university of cambridge) and mark spalding (tnc) will use earth observation data, including information on the current and former extent of mangrove forests; maps and models of the causes of mangrove loss; and data on the physical and social constraints to restoration .
to this day, conservancy of southwest florida continues to work with pelican bay residents and collier county to advise on mangrove protection and restoration, as well as providing guidance on dredging in clam pass .
july the 26th is mangrove action day. enter our 2018 global photography contest to celebrate this important day for mangrove ecosystems
seeing these potential benefits of mangrove habitat restoration, in addition to improved access to water, men and women from obane and terkpekope agreed to work on a restoration project in exchange for food, and basic equipment such as cutlasses and rubber boots. they cleared dense grasses by hand to open the waterways, and planted mangroves alongside their cleared water channels .
this article series on mangrove restoration is from iucn' s global marine and polar programme with the support of germany' s international climate initiative (iki) through the iucn global forest and climate change programme .
when the enabling biophysical and socioeconomic conditions are put back in place applying ecological mangrove restoration principles, nature will do the rest. when that happens, species to site matching is optimal, resulting in better survival, faster growth and a more diverse and resilient mangrove forest .
this article series on mangrove restoration is written by iucn' s global marine and polar programme with the support of germany' s international climate initiative (iki) through the iucn global forest and climate change programme .
there are several issues. restoring a mangrove is a complex process that needs to be founded on the principles of ecosystem management. often, fast - paced and large - scale ‘restoration events’ are not necessarily scientifically robust in terms of which mangrove species should be restored, and where .
the guyana mangrove restoration project saw women take a central leadership role with their efforts to increase the resilience of guyana’s coasts against flooding and coastal erosion – a threat which mostly affected women. women were provided with resources for economic empowerment and capacity building trainings, which allowed them to set up various businesses including honey production, tourism activities and mangrove cultivation. the active participation of women even led to the establishment of a women - led volunteer organisation for mangrove awareness and restoration as well as the ‘mangrove cooperative society’ to support other women with training and resources on beekeeping .
spalding m, blasco f, field c. world mangrove atlas. okinawa japan international society for mangrove ecosystems 1997. 1997 .
another common error is not adequately involving the local communities in the process – beyond paid labour and photo opportunities. adjacent rural communities often know much about successful mangrove management, and their involvement is key to long - term success in terms of restoration, management and benefit flows. in addition, their incentives are strong – communities gain benefits from successful mangrove restoration in terms of livelihoods and storm surge protection, among others. but they must have clear rights and responsibilities in the process .
the winning poster (pictured right) from the fifteenth meeting of the subsidiary body on scientific, technical and technological advice (sbstta) under the convention on biological diversity (cbd) discusses the importance of mangrove restoration for endangered species and humans .
this article series on mangrove restoration is written by juliet blum and dorothée herr from iucn' s global marine and polar programme with the support of germany' s international climate initiative (iki) through the iucn global forest and climate change programme .
area of mangrove forest contained within tiles where change processes were observed. forest area is provided as a percentage of the global quantity of mangrove forest .
while a map alone cannot drive change, it is a valuable tool that can be used by environmental groups and decision makers to show the extent of degraded mangroves, how much land is available for restoration, identify where these areas are located, and kick start opportunities for implementing restoration projects. while the cost of mangrove restoration can be relatively low at the site level, scaling this up to achieve ambitious development goals will require high levels of investment; understanding that there are competing needs for government and charitable funding. while tough decisions always have to be made, mangroves provide multiple goods and services for people, fostering healthy and sustainable communities .
starting february 22, the world ocean summit 2017 discusses means to use capital and the private sector to drive scalable, sustainable investment in the ocean. iucn along with its members and partners will be present to ensure mangrove restoration can also benefit from innovative financing solutions .
the resulting failure of many restoration projects is discouraging to all parties involved, not least the local communities which need positive encouragement to restore and protect mangroves, rather than discouragement over project failure .
the mangrove and beach forest training course is a three - day course, which aims to enable communities to become more resilient to natural disasters, using the science - based protocols for the protection and restoration of their coastal greenbelt through a series of lectures and field visits .
since then, lewis’s ecological restoration methods have been used to restore 30 mangrove sites in the united states, along with mangroves in another 25 countries around the world. in thailand, indonesia and other countries, local communities dependent on mangroves have learned his methods, too .
ellison am, farnsworth ej, merkt re. origins of mangrove ecosystems and the mangrove biodiversity anomaly. global ecology and biogeography. 1999; 8: 95–115 .
the end - point of this project will be to visualise these values of mangroves on the map of restoration potential. good models now exist, and more are under development, which will enable the maps to show not only where we could restore mangroves, but what the potential return on restoration investment might be for specific ecosystems services. the project will show the modelled values for potential mangrove areas for services such as fisheries enhancement, wave attenuation, and carbon storage and sequestration .
as a framework within which to map restoration potential, it is important to know the current and historic distribution of mangrove forests. existing information on mangroves is limited in that it either provides a snapshot of extent or covers only limited geographical areas. however, current research, such as that undertaken by global mangrove watch, aims to provide mangrove extent at multiple time points from the mid - 1990s to the present day. this time series of mangrove extent will allow us to identify areas of recent mangrove loss, with the assumption that recently converted areas are more restorable than those that were lost long ago .
the world needs mangroves, but in many parts of the world they have been lost or degraded, along with their valuable services like coastal protection or fisheries enhancement. restoration is necessary in many places .
in kenya, women engaged in ‘mikoko pamoja’, a mangrove conservation and restoration project co - ordinated by aces, maintain ‘ the gazi women boardwalk ’ to promote conservation education within the mangrove forest. through this initiative the women have proven their effectiveness in contributing to ecotourism while generating income for their community’s schools as well as contributing to better health care and reliable water supply .
manual on community - based mangrove rehabilitation (cover) (4. 81 mb )
manual on mangrove reversion of abandoned and ilegal brackishwater fishponds (2. 92 mb )
a number of additional environmental and social factors further influence the suitability for restoration. while data on physical constraints such as wave energy, tides and bathymetry are only available at coarse spatial scales, this information can give a broad indication whether an area is suitable. incorporating data on population density, demographics, wealth, and use of the mangrove - derived products, the project aims to produce a more complete picture of the factors driving restoration potential. the combination of these factors provides an idea of the current conditions; yet threats to mangroves are not static. the project will also incorporate projections of future sea - level, hurricanes and urbanisation to highlight those areas where restoration may not be viable in the long run .
an assessment has shown that the british virgin islands’ mangrove population was nearly wiped out by last september’s hurricanes. a week - long assessment was done by dr gregg moore, who is a coastal restoration ecologist. his assessment was to find out the current status of local mangroves and present a report …
mangrove planting has become hugely popular. the majority of planting efforts are however failing. a more effective approach is to create the right conditions for mangroves to grow back naturally. mangroves restored in this way generally survive and function better. this leaflet aims to contribute to best practice by exploring the question that everyone involved in mangrove restoration should ask: ‘to plant or not to plant? ’
in some cases, planting can assist or enrich the natural regeneration process. however, planting in non - mangrove habitat and areas showing natural mangrove recruitment needs to be avoided .
planting mangroves along an exposed coastline, in too - deep water without fresh water input, is a recipe for failure. much money was spent after the tsunami in developing mangrove seedling nurseries, while little money or time was put into determining the site - specific needs of mangroves at each restoration location .
a) advance and regrowth of mangrove extent (1996 - 2010) b) degradation from anthropogenic drivers of change including evidence of prior disturbance c) hotspots where substantial changes in mangrove forest extent were observed (1996 - 2010) d) tiles that contained intact mangrove (1996 - 2010). the total distribution of mangrove tiles is provided in gray .
much of the post - tsunami effort to restore coastal greenbelts involved simple planting of mangrove seedlings and propagules. there have been numerous failures, already, due to planting of inappropriate species, and in inappropriate locations. failure occurs, in general, due to a lack of understanding of the restoration site itself :
the msg meeting following the mangrove symposium at bremen was attended by 14 msg members as well as olivier hasinger and dorothy herr from iucn. heather koldewey and olivier participated via internet video link. dom wodehouse was also invited to contribute to our discussion on mangrove restoration related to the global mangrove alliance (gma) - the main topic of the meeting. dorothy gave an informative introduction to the gma, and members expressed views on how the msg could contribute to this initiative, mainly as advisors for scientific matters .
global mangrove forest change distribution and frequency of mangrove forest change (gain and loss) 1996 - 2010 by region, as a percentage of the total number of occurrences of change observed globally .
in the south, mangrove restoration and rehabilitation has been designed more as a multi - functional approach to alleviate poverty and diversify livelihoods. many plantations are both species - rich and managed under several land - use arrangements, with individuals allocated land ownership in some cases. under such conditions, mangroves can provide both ecological goods and services and livelihood benefits. this is especially the case in areas where restoration has been coupled with capacity building and training, and the provision of social services, such as schools and health clinics, and of infrastructure such as roads and electricity .
to make up for this loss, people attempt to restore mangroves all around the world. in most cases, they approach mangrove restoration as if they were planting a forest on land. they grow mangrove seedlings in greenhouses and then transplant them into mudflats along the ocean’s edge. the problem is that this approach doesn’t work very well. in the philippines, for instance, the world bank spent $ 35 million to plant nearly 3 million mangrove seedlings in the central visayas between 1984 and 1992. but by 1996, less than 20 percent of those mangroves had survived .
mangroves are rightly held up as the poster child for ecosystem service value. by highlighting the long - term value of mangroves this work should reach far beyond the conservation sector, encouraging the engagement of governments and local communities and providing critical new impetus for future restoration .
mangrove forest extent is not evenly distributed across the tropics. the total mangrove area defined by giri et al. [ 18 ] used in this study was 134, 257 km 2. the largest proportion of this was located in southeast asia (33. 8 %), followed by africa (20. 9 %), with the two regions accounting for over half of the global mangrove forest extent. the distribution of mangrove forest is important in understanding the impact of observed processes of change on the global quantity of mangrove forest. anthropogenic activity observed in southeast asia occurred in tiles that contained 18. 4% of the world’s mangrove forest, whereby 12% of the world’s mangrove forest in the region was contained within tiles that were subject to aquaculture / agriculture practices over the period 1996 - 2010 (table 3). oppositely, the mangroves of mei account for a small proportion of the total mangrove forest extent (6. 6 %) although practices observed there could have regional importance. globally, the observed processes of change occurred in tiles with large proportions of the world’s mangrove forest extent. total anthropogenic loss occurred in tiles containing over 40% of the global mangrove forest, of which 16. 1% was due to agriculture / aquaculture over the period 1996 - 2010. intact mangrove forest was coincident with 46. 5% of the world’s mangrove forest extent .
download the report: oil spills in mangroves: planning and response considerations [ pdf, 2. 9 mb ]. originally published in 2002, this report was updated in 2014 to include: lessons learned from spills that have occurred since its original publication, and new global and continental u. s. mangrove distribution maps reflecting the expansion of mangroves in the u. s. as a result of climate change. it contains more photos of different life stages of common mangroves in the u. s. , response options, and restoration methods, as well as additional graphics showing mangrove ecotypes and oil spill effects on mangrove forests .
by 1989, west lake park didn’t look like a mangrove forest at all; it looked like a dirt area riddled with small channels of water. but he didn’t have to wait long for the mangrove seeds to arrive and take root. by 1991, mangrove seedlings had sprouted all along the shore. by 1996, all three of florida’s mangrove species had established at west lake. adult and juvenile fish soon moved in; a survey found as many fish and species at west lake as at an older, healthy mangrove site nearby. and those fish attracted shorebirds and wading birds .
the importance of mangrove forests – for food, carbon storage and sequestration, coastal protection, and even tourism and water purification – is widely acknowledged. so much so that there is an increasing drive not only to halt further losses, but to increase mangroves through restoration. dr. t. a. worthington discusses how iucn and the nature conservancy (tnc) are building tools to support this momentum .
coastal communities are first to face the impacts of coastal degradation – reduced flood protection, decreased water quality, extreme soil erosion and a rapid decline in the variety and abundance of food sources (many of which come from mangroves in the tropics). mass mangrove plantings should help address these challenges in certain areas, but instead many restoration efforts worldwide (for example, in the philippines) are failing .
“we don’t know the exact percentage, but most of the mangrove restoration projects around the world that are attempted are not successful, ” lewis says. wetland habitats (like mangroves) are more dynamic than terrestrial habitats; they’re submerged in water for part of each day as the tides come in and roll out. if the water level isn’t just right, the seedlings don’t stand a chance at survival .
oil spills in mangroves is the second in a series of publications prepared by noaa' s office of response and restoration to provide response - related information on specific warm - water resources. (other publications in the series include oil spills in coral reefs and oil and sea turtles. )
so he started by again immersing himself in the mangroves. lewis hired a hydrologist to map the area’s water movement while he experimented with restoration on a small ten - acre plot. after three years, he had enough information to get started on the full restoration project. largely that involved one difficult task: “we had to move a lot of dirt, ” lewis says. using bulldozers and backhoes, lewis and a team of engineers moved piles of dirt away from the site. then, they constructed a slight slope leading down into the ocean so that tides could easily flow .
regional mangrove forest change distribution and frequency of mangrove forest change (gain and loss) 1996 - 2010 as a percentage of the regional occurrences of change, highlighting that lower occurrences in comparison to the global observations still have substantial localized impacts .
an effective, long - term solution to degraded mangrove forests worldwide. 6 steps to successful emr map asia emr field project
zsl started its mangrove rehabilitation work in 2007 through the community - based mangrove rehabilitation project (cmrp), with the aim of increasing coastal protection, food resources and diversifying livelihood options. this was achieved through empowering local communities to protect remaining mangrove forests and developing science - based methods for communities to rehabilitate lost forest sites. over a four year period, close to 100, 000 mangroves were planted, with the rehabilitation of 107. 8 hectares of mangrove forest well underway. this project resulted in manuals that provide detailed biological and socioeconomic guidance on community - based mangrove rehabilitation and on fishpond reversion to mangroves .
putz fe, chan ht. tree growth, dynamics, and productivity in a mature mangrove forest in malaysia. 1986 .
while care was taken to protect the mangrove - rich area, by 1991, approximately 14 acres of black mangroves died .
over 50% of the world’s mangrove forests have been destroyed and the majority of these losses are attributable to human activities .
to be more effective, the map will incorporate to the extent possible, the many local drivers of mangrove degradation (e. g. , urbanisation and industrial development, conversion to agriculture and aquaculture ponds, deforestation for fuelwood or timber, altered freshwater regimes, pollution and coastal erosion), which vary in extent and severity between countries and regions. identifying what an area of mangrove has been replaced with gives an indication on the feasibility of restoring that area. for example, large areas of mangrove, particularly in southeast asia, have been converted to ponds for shrimp aquaculture. initially these ponds are highly productive, providing income for local communities; however, over time the economic return often declines and many are abandoned. these abandoned shrimp ponds have been highlighted as major opportunities for mangrove restoration .
located within the tropical monsoon belt, vietnam is extremely vulnerable to climate change, particularly to increases in storm intensity and sea level rise. this case study examines vietnam’s efforts to use mangroves as an adaptation approach, and illustrates how governance plays a crucial role in the success of such actions. large - scale mangrove restoration and rehabilitation has been institutionalized as key adaptation interventions in vietnam, with very different results in the north and south .
iucn mangrove specialist group statement for 2014 world parks congress: mangroves: protect, restore, expand (188. 41 kb )
in florida, almost 200 species of birds, along with numerous species of reptiles, amphibians, mammals and insects rely on mangrove habitat. approximately 75 percent of commercially caught local fish and prawns, at some point in their lives, utilize mangrove systems .
this report summarizes current research on mangrove ecosystems and was written for those who work in spill response and planning in regions where mangrove ecosystems are an important part of the coastline. it aims to help minimize environmental impacts in mangroves when oil spills threaten them .
conservation international’s suriname project ‘building with nature’ has witnessed great success following this technique. in fact, wetlands international does not advocate for the planting of mangroves, but a restoration approach that facilitates their natural regrowth by creating ecologically suitable conditions. questions on whether ‘to plant or not to plant ’ are addressed in their guide .
a common mistake in mangrove restoration is not choosing the right species for the right site. for example, mangroves are often planted in areas where they were not found previously, especially mudflats. such sites are too exposed for saplings that cannot withstand soil erosion and wave action. low oxygen availability due to constant moisture in mudflats results in high seedling mortality and stunted growth. this can be addressed by choosing local good quality seed for a suitable planting site .
ada is a town on the western side of the volta river estuary in ghana, west africa, on the gulf of guinea. the department of wildlife office responsible for the ramsar site in this area initiated mangrove restoration projects in three villages in the area, two of which will be discussed here: obane and terkpekope. both villages are situated slightly inland from the mouth of the volta river, and were historically alongside tributaries that flowed into the songor lagoon .
changes in mangrove forest extent were observed across their entire range (fig 2) as a consequence of both natural and anthropogenic drivers of change. no region exhibited wholly intact mangrove extent over the period 1996 - 2010 with anthropogenic disturbance / removal observed in each of the locations .
this study investigates the distribution of observed drivers of change in mangrove forest extent, over the period 1996 - 2010 using time - series radar composite imagery. this study uses both spatial and temporal information to achieve this novel understanding of changes in mangrove forest extent at the global scale .
follow the links on the right of this page to learn about the benefits (ecosystems services) that mangroves provide – as well as links to a wide array of mangrove resources and initiatives. stay current with the stories below which highlight mangrove work from iucn members and partners around the world .
mapping and monitoring the changing extent of mangroves has proved difficult, with most attempts relying on a combination of remotely sensed data and existing field maps to catalogue mangrove extent for a single point in time. spalding et al. [ 14 ] produced a global map (updated in 2010; [ 15 ]) from a range of inventories with varying degrees of quality including georeferenced sketch maps, some of which were dated to the 1960s. similarly, a global assessment of mangrove forests conducted by the fao [ 16, 17 ] produced an inventory of mangrove extent across the globe but offered no geographical interpretation of their distribution. as such, these inventories offer no insight into the changes in the spatial distribution of mangrove extent. spatially explicit maps of mangrove extent, consistently at a single point in time, are required to direct and inform the management and conservation of mangrove forests .
mangrove forests provide a wide array of valuable ecosystem services and play a critical role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. they sequester vast amounts of carbon from the atmosphere, slow coastal erosion, and form a natural barrier that protects coastal communities from extreme weather. mangrove ecosystems are a refuge …
below you will find a snapshot of this month' s important dates for anything mangrove related. the full calendar is available in the useful documents section .
rönnbäck p. the ecological basis for economic value of seafood production supported by mangrove ecosystems. ecological economics. 1999; 29 (2): 235–252 .
today, july 26 is world mangrove day and iucn will be announcing powerful new collaborations to protect and restore the world' s mangroves. stay tuned !
though mangrove forests are in many ways adaptable ecosystems, they are highly vulnerable to oil toxicity and can be further damaged by many types of cleanup activities .
changes in mangrove extent were identified through a combination of their color, their shape and the context of the surrounding environment in the composite imagery. a) intact mangroves in papua, indonesia b) prior disturbance (aquaculture) at guayaquil, ecuador c) loss of mangrove along the coastline of french guiana d) colonization of mangrove along the french guiana coastline e) extensive aquaculture at the mahakam delta, east kalimantan, indonesia f) mangrove dieback in west papua, indonesia g) logging within the managed matang forest reserve, perak, malaysia h) prior and on - going agriculture in sumatra. imagery copyright of jaxa .
for the period 1996 - 2010, we provide the first indication of the drivers behind mangrove land cover and land use change across the (pan -) tropics using time - series japanese earth resources satellite (jers - 1) synthetic aperture radar (sar) and advanced land observing satellite (alos) phased array - type l - band sar (palsar) data. multi - temporal radar mosaics were manually interpreted for evidence of loss and gain in forest extent and its associated driver. mangrove loss as a consequence of human activities was observed across their entire range. between 1996 - 2010 12% of the 1168 1°x1° radar mosaic tiles examined contained evidence of mangrove loss, as a consequence of anthropogenic degradation, with this increasing to 38% when combined with evidence of anthropogenic activity prior to 1996. the greatest proportion of loss was observed in southeast asia, whereby approximately 50% of the tiles in the region contained evidence of mangrove loss, corresponding to 18. 4% of the global mangrove forest tiles. southeast asia contained the greatest proportion (33. 8 %) of global mangrove forest. the primary driver of anthropogenic mangrove loss was found to be the conversion of mangrove to aquaculture / agriculture, although substantial advance of mangroves was also evident in many regions .
mangrove forests are particularly rich in directly harvestable seafood, timber, firewood and other plant products such as tea and roofing materials. they also provide vital protection against floods and storms and buffer against sea level rise. especially in developing countries, coastal communities are directly dependent on products and services gained from mangrove forest ecosystems .
taking place in bak - klong beach in koh kong province, the mangrove youth camp was a unique three - day event that brought so much awareness on the benefits of the mangrove ecosystem and the challenges the areng and prey lang communities are presently facing. “kang khmer” or khmer bike, a youth - led organisation, …
furthermore, plantings typically use only a single species of mangrove, even though most mangrove forests include many species. “mangrove forests, like many forests, are composed of a mixture of trees and other communities. they are very complex, ” says lewis. “this supports a lot of wildlife and it is the healthy forest that we all talk about. ” on the rare occasion when a single - species planting does take root, the resulting habitat is less complex and supports fewer species .
zsl has been working in collaboration with the iucn ssc mangrove specialist group to produce a statement for the 2014 world parks congress: mangroves: protect, restore, expand .
valiela i, bowen jl, york jk. mangrove forests: one of the world’s threatened major tropical environments. bioscience. 2001; 51 (10): 807–815 .
with the increasing wealth and availability of knowledge on mangroves and how to restore them, successful restoration projects are possible. but they shouldn’t be driven by photo opportunities and media coverage. instead, a sound, science - based plan that follows the principles of emr / cbemr, using trained personnel and community participation and ownership from the planning stage through to successful establishment, and community management and monitoring will lead to greater success .
zsl - philippines has built a solid track record of 21 training courses on mangrove rehabilitation over the past six years, graduating more than 1000 participants from various institutions and organisations .
the training of trainers course is a five - day programme, which includes a series of lectures, group exercises, field visits and practicum sessions. it aims to build the capacity of the participants to train mangrove workers, practitioners, people’s organisations and advocates using science - based protocols in mangrove and beach forest conservation and rehabilitation. find out more .
mangrove systems are often called “nature’s nurseries” because they provide habitat and shelter for a variety of animals. they also serve as an indicator of the health of our coastal waterways .
established in 2013, the iucn ssc mangrove specialist group (msg) aims to support mangrove research and conservation projects by bringing together experts in the field to share their knowledge. hosted by zsl, the group aims to assess the conservation status of mangroves; identify, quantify and prioritise threats; and develop plans to conserve the most threatened species and habitats .
mangroves are critical coastal ecosystems that impact our lives. they nourish biodiversity as nursery grounds for many coastal and marine species and support fisheries. they buffer coastal communities against extreme weather events such as hurricanes, stabilise coastlines and slow or reduce soil erosion. despite these benefits, half of the world’s mangroves (about 32 million hectares) have already been cleared or destroyed – and those that remain are under threat. could restoration be a solution ?
komiyama a, ong je, poungparn s. allometry, biomass, and productivity of mangrove forests: a review. aquatic botany. 2008; 89 (2): 128–137 .
“there wasn’t a single mangrove planted in the whole project, ” says lewis. “mother nature can do such a great job of repairing herself if you give her the opportunity. ”
the conservancy has been monitoring, performing research, and helping to restore mangrove systems continuously since the conservancy’s inception and has one of the longest continuous mangrove forest monitoring programs in florida. most of the conservancy’s research has been targeted at forests adjacent to human development such as within the clam bay estuary, fruit farm creek – goodland die - off and pine island sound .
richards dr, friess da. rates and drivers of mangrove deforestation in southeast asia, 2000–2012. proceedings of the national academy of sciences. 2016; 113 (2): 344–349 .
the recently established iucn ssc mangrove specialist group, aims to support mangrove research and conservation projects by bringing together experts in the field to share their knowledge. hosted by the zoological society of london (zsl), the group aims to; assess the conservation status of mangroves; identify, quantify and prioritise threats; and develop plans to conserve the most threatened species and habitats .
the 1994 report, recovery of mangrove habitats at the vesta bella oil spill site [ pdf, 3. 5 mb ], describes the spill cleanup on st. john and or & r' s april 1992 revisit of the island to (1) identify and characterize trends in oil weathering and (2) to determine if wiping mangrove roots was an effective cleanup method .
fao. status and trends in mangrove area extent worldwide, by m. l. wilkie and s. fortuna. forest resources assessment working paper no. 63. rome. (available at
fortunately, integrating a gender - responsive approach into conservation efforts is currently gaining global momentum with significant results toward empowering women and enhancing gender equality. for women some of the potential consequences of a gender - responsive approach are increased food and water security, gained leadership and voice, improved health, security, education and skills development as well as improved livelihoods and income. iucn’s global gender office highlights and supports this approach to ‘ensure gender equality is central to sustainable global environmental solutions’ in a range of issues. particularly around the conservation and restoration of mangrove forests, iucn, its partners and other organisations are active in several projects working to integrate gender considerations and responses .
another element to consider is the ‘right mix’ of species – as some mangroves tolerate greater salt water flooding than others (an important consideration with sea level rise due to climate change). the diversity of species in an ecosystem influences its health, resilience and provision of ecosystem services. restoration programmes that focus on planting a single species end up as a monocultures that have a low capacity for hosting biodiversity like fish and crabs and are vulnerable to pest aggregations. those that do create a multi - species community need to combine species that complement one another. if these factors are not adequately considered, mangrove forests will not fulfil the ecological and physical functions for which they were planted, and will likely fail .
mangroves are vital for healthy coastal ecosystems in many regions of the world and research and studies are revealing the unique importance of these habitats to the planet. the mangrove action project is dedicated to reversing the degradation and loss of mangrove forest wetlands and their associated coastal ecosystems worldwide. its main goal is to promote the rights of traditional and indigenous coastal peoples, including fishers and farmers, to sustainably manage their coastal environs .
it is important that observations of change are evaluated in the context of regional importance. whilst total anthropogenic disturbance occurred in approximately half of the tiles in southeast asia due to its extensive mangrove forest, a similar regional proportion of degradation was observed in north america, due to the historic clearing of mangroves for large urban developments (i. e. florida; [ 40 ]). this highlights that mangrove loss and degradation must be evaluated at the regional scale as the impact of observed changes are proportional to the mangrove area. the frequency of loss and degradation, however, does not impart the areal extent of the degradation as the motive for the removal of mangrove forest can vary from small - scale clearing for localized use to industrial - scale clearing. furthermore, this highlights contrasting processes behind the drivers of change, whereby some regions may have shifted from mangrove degradation to conservation (e. g. , florida everglades) in contrast to the current and continued exploitation of mangroves for resources in developing nations (e. g. , southeast asia) .
zsl helped establish a mangrove eco - park in panay, philippines: the kantunggan it ibajay eco - park in aklan has over 1km of boardwalks for visitors to explore the extraordinarily diverse mangrove forest and associated wildlife. highlights of this eco - park are the centuries old mangroves in the centre of the forest which are over eight metres in diameter. this eco - park is managed by local community groups and helps raise awareness of the importance of mangroves, while providing valuable additional income for the local communities who manage the park. a second mangrove eco - park is under construction in pedada, ajuy, which is also on panay island .
lucas r, robelo l, fatoyinbo l, rosenqvist a, itoh t, shimada m, et al. contribution of l - band sar to systematic global mangrove monitoring. marine and freshwater research. 2014 .
mangrove forests are one of the most severely threatened and undervalued ecosystems on earth. they provide a wide variety of ecosystem services currently valued globally at us $ 1. 6 billion. for many coastal communities, mangrove ecosystems provide livelihoods, essential sources of protein and coastal protection. compelling evidence suggests that mangroves play an important role in climate stabilisation, possessing a carbon storage and sequestration potential considered to be greater than that of tropical forests .
more specifically, these activities include development along coastal areas and concomitant alterations to hydrology, including dredging, filling, diking and impounding wetlands. protection of remaining mangrove communities is vital to the environmental and economic future of florida .
in l - band sar imagery the backscatter of the incident energy to the sensor is dependent upon the physical structure of the land cover being imaged. larger structures increase backscatter so that the large vertical structure of a mangrove results in an increase in backscatter over grass, which has a smaller structure. intact mangroves appear brighter (medium to high backscatter) in radar imagery than smaller vegetation and open water surfaces which appear dark (low backscatter). intermediate growth stages have backscatter that increases with vegetation size. as mangrove forests and rainforests are structurally similar, gradual natural changes at the landward margin or within the mangrove forest could not be deciphered due to similarity in backscatter between images .
citation: thomas n, lucas r, bunting p, hardy a, rosenqvist a, simard m (2017) distribution and drivers of global mangrove forest change, 1996–2010. plos one 12 (6): e0179302. urltoken
it seemed to lewis that mangrove forests could and would restore themselves if the conditions were right; he just had to identify the ‘right conditions. ’ soil nutrients didn’t seem to matter, as mangroves can transform sand into rich mangrove peat in a few years. floating seeds were ubiquitous as long as healthy mangroves lived nearby, so that wasn’t the problem either. but the flow of water (known as hydrology) onto the soil made all the difference in the world .
the case studies target identified gaps in knowledge of the different stages of the mangrove tree life cycle through: observational studies on mature tree forest composition and spatial patterns in two forest types; observational studies and experiments examining the dispersal and development of mangrove propagules and seeds and establishment of released propagules in experimental enclosures; and experiments examining the survival and growth of transplanted seedlings in the two lower intertidal forest communities, with distance from the ngao river and inside and outside canopy gaps .
hamilton se, casey d. creation of a high spatio - temporal resolution global database of continuous mangrove forest cover for the 21st century (cgmfc - 21). global ecology and biogeography. 2016; 25 (6): 729–738 .
ohimain ei. environmental impacts of oil mining activities in the niger delta mangrove ecosystem. in: proceedings of the 8th international mine water association (imwa) conference, international mine water association (imwa), sandton; 2003. p. 503–517 .
mangrove degradation in the region was observed in the jers - 1 / alos palsar color composite imagery (red = 1996 jers - 1, green = 2007 palsar, blue = 2010 palsar) and verified using landsat imagery. a) color composite sar image, b) 1996 landsat 5 tm image, c) 2010 landsat 5 tm image. the mangrove loss was identified using the distinct color in the radar composite imagery and geometric shape of the change feature. the distinct red color is a consequence of a decrease in radar backscatter in 2007 and 2010 from 1996 due to the replacement of a rough mangrove environment with the smooth surface of an aquaculture pond. radar imagery copyright of jaxa. landsat data available from the u. s. geological survey .
each channel of the temporal color composite represents a specific point in time (red: 1996, green: 2007, blue: 2010), therefore the composite imagery provides a means of inferring changes to the mangrove extent through time. a decrease in backscatter from 1996, synonymous with the removal of mangroves, is observed as a distinct red region because of the high backscatter relative to 2007 and 2010. conversely, distinct blue regions were observed as a consequence of an increase in backscatter by 2010, synonymous with the colonization of a section of coastline by mangroves. distinct regions of green in the imagery are indicative of the colonization and subsequent loss of mangrove over the 14 - year period (1996 - 2010) with increases and subsequent decreases in backscatter. cyan (2007, 2010), magenta (1996, 2010) and yellow (1996, 2007) were synonymous with degrees of change within this period. the color is used in combination with the context of the observed change, including its location, shape and size. for example, fig 1c shows a loss of mangrove through erosion, defined by the deep red color, its location on the seaward margin of a mangrove forest and its irregularly shaped boundary. the detection of changes over very short time - periods was challenging. subsequently, detecting agriculture was dependent upon the period between the removal of the mangrove and growth of the crop / plantation and when the radar data were acquired. therefore, some mature crops could not be readily distinguished from a mangrove forest .
fromard f, vega c, proisy c. half a century of dynamic coastal change affecting mangrove shorelines of french guiana. a case study based on remote sensing data analyses and field surveys. marine geology. 2004; 208 (2–4): 265–280 .
zsl - philippines has built a solid track record of 21 training courses on mangrove rehabilitation over the past six years, graduating more than 1000 participants. find out more about our courses and how to apply: 2018 mbfrc training application (1. 68 mb )
nascimento wr, souza - filho pwm, proisy c, lucas rm, rosenqvist a. mapping changes in the largest continuous amazonian mangrove belt using object - based classification of multisensor satellite imagery. estuarine, coastal and shelf science. 2013; 117: 83–93 .
lewis figured out how to restore mangroves by immersing himself in them, literally. “i spent a decade working in the mangroves before i started to have an understanding of what was going on, ” he says. he started out by observing healthy mangroves around tampa bay as a graduate student in the late 1960s. he noticed that whenever a mangrove tree died, mangrove seeds floating in the water arrived and took root in no time. the mangroves didn’t need his help to grow back; the area recovered all by itself .
since the december 2004 tsunami there has been a mounting call for re - establishing protective greenbelts along coastlines. although the jury is still out on the extent to which mangroves mediate tsunami damage, mangrove forests are proven effective barriers against tropical storms and strong wave action .
sigi lang' at jk, kirui bky, skov mw, kairo jg, mencuccini m, huxham m (2013) species mixing boosts root yield in mangrove trees. oecologia 172: 271 - 278 - 10. 1007 / s00442 - 012 - 2490 - x
giri c, ochieng e, tieszen ll, zhu z, singh a, loveland t, et al. status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. global ecology and biogeography. 2011; 20 (1): 154–159.
mangrove restoration is the regeneration of mangrove forest ecosystems in areas where they have previously existed . the practice of mangrove restoration is grounded in the discipline of restoration ecology , which aims to “ [ assist ] the recovery of resilience and adaptive capacity of ecosystems that have been degraded , damaged , or destroyed ” . since environmental impacts are an ongoing threat , to successfully restore an ecosystem implies not merely to recreate its former condition , but to strengthen its capacity to adapt to change over time . 
mangrove restoration is the regeneration of mangrove forest ecosystems in areas where they have previously existed. the practice of mangrove restoration is grounded in the discipline of restoration ecology, which aims to “ [ assist ] the recovery of resilience and adaptive capacity of ecosystems that have been degraded, damaged, or destroyed ”. since environmental impacts are an ongoing threat, to successfully restore an ecosystem implies not merely to recreate its former condition, but to strengthen its capacity to adapt to change over time.
mangrove restoration is the regeneration of mangrove forest ecosystems in areas where they have previously existed. the practice of mangrove restoration is grounded in the discipline of restoration ecology, which aims to “ [ assist ] the recovery of resilience and adaptive capacity of ecosystems that have been degraded, damaged, or destroyed ”. since environmental impacts are an ongoing threat, to successfully restore an ecosystem implies not merely to recreate its former condition, but to strengthen its capacity to adapt to change over time.