underground hydrogen storage
paterson, l. : the implications of fingering in underground hydrogen storage. int. j. hydrog. energy
panfilov, m. : underground storage of hydrogen: in situ self - organisation and methane generation. transp. porous media
storage above ground requires tanks, which cost three to five times more than geologic storage, lord said. in addition to cost savings, underground storage of hydrogen gas offers advantages in volume. “above - ground tanks can’t even begin to match the amount of hydrogen gas that can be stored underground, ” she said .
bulatov, g. : underground storage of hydrogen. phd thesis, moscow gubkin oil and gas university (in russian) (1979 )
foh, s. e. : underground hydrogen storage: final report. brookhaven national laboratory, department of energy and environment (1979 )
russia: pure hydrogen was stored underground at 90 bars for the needs of the aerospace industry .
carden, p. , paterson, l. : physical, chemical and energy aspects of underground hydrogen storage. int. j. hydrog. energy
storing large quantities of hydrogen is one of the critical aspects of integrating hydrogen into the energy matrix and developing a hydrogen economy. given the proximity of the hydrogen plant to some depleted oil and gas reservoirs, the possibility of underground hydrogen storage in one of them is current under consideration as a pilot project .
ebigbo, a. , golfier, f. , quintard, m. : a coupled, pore - scale model for methanogenic microbial activity in underground hydrogen storage. adv. water resour .
storing pressurised hydrogen in underground salt caverns could help to back up variable renewables in the uk’s future energy landscape. stuart nathan reports .
crotogino, f. , donadei, s. , bünger, u. , landinger, h. : large - scale hydrogen underground storage for securing future energy supplies. in: 18th world hydrogen energy conference, pp 16–21 (2010 )
this paper describes the spanish case study of the hyunder project which aims to evaluate the potential of underground hydrogen storage for large - scale energy storage along europe, analysing besides the spanish case, france, germany, the netherlands, romania, and the united kingdom .
increasing production of fluctuating renewable energy intensifies the need for electricity storage to ensure network reliability and flexibility. while short term energy storage can be met by small decentralized storage systems, mid to long term electricity storage technologies are still lagging behind. using hydrogen as a mean to store energy in the long run may in the future help address the challenge of grid balancing when large quantities of fluctuating renewable electricity are introduced in the energy mix. although large scale underground gas storage is in general a relatively mature solution from an economic and technical perspective, hydrogen underground storage before becoming a potentially attractive solution still needs to be evaluated thoroughly from a technical, economic and societal standpoint .
their paper, “geologic storage of hydrogen: scaling up to meet city transportation demands, ” was published in the international journal of hydrogen energy .
a recent study by sandia national laboratories in new mexico says that large - scale storage of low - pressure, gaseous hydrogen in salt caverns and other underground sites offers several advantages over above - ground storage for transportation fuel and grid - scale energy applications. geological storage of hydrogen gas could make it possible to produce and distribute large quantities of hydrogen fuel for the growing fuel cell electric vehicle market, say the researchers .
buy compressed hydrogen gas or liquid hydrogen (h2) | praxair, inc .
as a matter of fact, the main current operators of large hydrogen storage systems are actually praxair and sabic .
furthermore, praxair is constructing a large underground hydrogen storage facility to enable “peak shaving” of its hydrogen production. this facility, located in texas, will utilize a salt cavern and will be the first of its kind in the industrial gases industry. connected to the praxair’s hydrogen pipeline network, which serves large consumers in
lord said her work could lead to demonstration projects to further cement the viability of underground hydrogen storage. salt caverns are the logical choice for a pilot project due to their proven ability to hold hydrogen, she said. environmental concerns such as contamination could also be further analyzed .
geologic storage of hydrogen gas could make it possible to produce and distribute large quantities of hydrogen fuel for the growing fuel cell electric vehicle market, the researchers concluded .
livermore, calif. — large - scale storage of low - pressure, gaseous hydrogen in salt caverns and other underground sites for transportation fuel and grid - scale energy applications offers several advantages over above - ground storage, says a recent sandia national laboratories study sponsored by the department of energy’s fuel cell technologies office .
as toyota, general motors, hyundai and others move ahead with plans to develop and sell or lease hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles, practical storage of hydrogen fuel at large scale is necessary to enable widespread hydrogen - powered transportation infrastructure. such storage options, dedrick said, are needed to realize the full potential of hydrogen for transportation .
additionally, installation of electrolyzer systems on electrical grids for power - to - gas applications, which integrate renewable energy, grid services and energy storage will require large - capacity, cost - effective hydrogen storage .
this case study has considered for the assessment, the competitiveness of hydrogen storage against other large scale energy storage concepts, the geological potential for hydrogen storage in the region, how to embed the hydrogen energy storage in the energy market and the possible business cases in four different applications: transport, power to gas, re - electrification and industry, taking into account all the economic aspects such us the electrolyser opex and capex or the cavern, electricity and water costs .
natural gas bas been stored underground since 1916 and much of the experience is directly applicable to hydrogen. nowadays, there are already twenty - three salt caverns being used for natural gas or
there are at least fifteen underground storage sites for natural gas, either in salt caverns or in aquifers, for a total available capacity of 110 twh, i. e. about 30% of their current annual demand .
ganser, c. , eng, b. : new energy storage concept for renewable energies in the form of potential energy storage, p. 70. techniken zur energiewende (2013 )
safe storage facilities are key in the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energies. we help shape the energy transition by developing innovative underground storage solutions. this involves investing in research and applying our findings to new business fields. the main characteristic of wind and solar energy is that generation is as volatile as our weather and hardly corresponds to the respective demand. the energy transition therefore requires storage capacity for the electrical energy provided by the geological subsoil .
toleukhanov, a. , panfilov, m. , panfilova, i. , kaltayev, a. : bio - reactive two - phase transport and population dynamics in underground storage of hydrogen: natural self - organisation. in: ecmor xiii - 13th european conference on the mathematics of oil recovery (2012 )
for her study on geologic storage, lord and her colleagues analyzed and reworked the geologic storage module of argonne national laboratory’s hydrogen delivery scenario analysis model. to help refine the model, lord studied storing hydrogen in salt caverns to meet peak summer driving demand for four cities: los angeles, houston, pittsburgh and detroit .
it is shown that the spanish geology can provide four technical options for hydrogen underground storage. results have shown the interest of the technology in short – medium term especially linked to certain conditions of high intermittent renewable energy penetration in the spanish power grid that result in surplus or residual electricity. hydrogen storage is interesting because it can integrate renewable energy systems in other sectors which do not have overcapacity and a high use of fossil fuels as the natural gas sector and the transport sector .
geologic storage solutions can service a number of key hydrogen markets since “costs are more influenced by the geology available rather than the size of the hydrogen market demand, ” said sandia’s anna snider lord, the study’s principal investigator .
we offer compressed hydrogen gas and liquid hydrogen (h 2) in a variety of purities and concentrations. see the chart below and download the spec sheets and safety data sheets for more information on buying liquid hydrogen and hydrogen gas from praxair .
back to the original article that started this discussion thread, the following item just goes to show that hydrogen storage in salt domes is not a totally risk free solution .
subsurface porous media hydrogen storage could be a viable option to mitigate shortages in energy supply from renewable sources. in this work, a scenario for such a storage is developed and the operation is simulated using a numerical model. a hypothetical storage site is developed, based on an actual geological structure. the results of the simulations show that the storage can supply about 20% of the average demand in electrical energy of the state of schleswig - holstein, germany, for a week - long period .
lord envisions that excess hydrogen produced throughout the year could be brought to geologic storage sites and then piped to cities during the summer, when the demand for driving fuels peaks .
hychico took part in the european union hyunder program, the purpose of which is to assess the potential of large scale underground hydrogen storage, the market for this activity, and its players. through this involvement, it also participates in consortia formed by companies and top - notched international research centers working in the fields of materials, microbiology, and geosciences .
try touching off a bit of hydrogen with a match in a test tube using electrolysis to dissociate hydrogen and oxygen from salt water some time .
to examine the cost of geologic hydrogen storage, lord started by selecting geologic formations that currently store natural gas. working with sandia economist peter kobos, lord analyzed costs to store hydrogen gas in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, aquifers, salt caverns and hard rock caverns .
depleted oil and gas reservoirs and aquifers could leak hydrogen, and cycling – filling a storage site, pulling hydrogen out for use and refilling the site – can’t be done more than once or twice a year to preserve the integrity of the rock formation, lord said .
the massive quantities of hydrogen that are stored in geologic features can subsequently be distributed as a high - pressure gas or liquid to supply hydrogen fuel markets .
hydrogen as an energy carrier is understood as a system capable of storing energy for a later use in a controlled manner. surplus electricity from renewable energy serves for green hydrogen generation via electrolysis. once produced, the hydrogen is stored for later consumption .
while geologic storage may prove to be a viable option, several issues need to be explored, said lord, including permeability of various geologic formations .
however, salt formations are limited. none exist in the pacific northwest, much of the east coast and much of the south, except for the gulf coast area. other options are needed for development of a nationwide hydrogen storage system .
if you require medium - range amounts of hydrogen, we offer bulk liquid deliveries that are made by truck and stored in hydrogen tanks located at your site. we also deliver hydrogen in high - pressure gas tube trailers to provide flexibility for supply pressure and flow rate .
praxair starts up hydrogen facility for the dow chemical company in u. s. gulf coast
and louisiana, it will significantly increase the availability of hydrogen during periods of peak demand .
lord’s work adds to sandia’s capabilities and decades of experience in hydrogen and fuel cells systems. sandia leads a number of other hydrogen research efforts, including the hydrogen fueling infrastructure research and station technology (h 2 first) project co - led by the national renewable energy laboratory (nrel), a maritime fuel cell demonstration, a development project focused on hydrogen - powered forklifts and a recent study of how many california gas stations can safely store and dispense hydrogen .
this pilot project intends to test the reservoir’s capacity, tightness and behavior so as to acquire experience in hydrogen storage. a possible application is to use a mix of hydrogen and natural gas as fuel to feed equipment between 10 and 30 mw and supply electric power to the wholesale electricity market at times of peak demand. the pilot test is devised in stages involving cycles of natural gas and hydrogen injection and production at different pressures and concentrations .
kepplinger, j. , crotogino, f. , donadei, s. , wohlers, m. : present trends in compressed air energy and hydrogen storage in germany. in: solution mining research institute smri fall 2011 conference, york, united kingdom (2011 )
results obtained so far were presented at the world hydrogen energy conference held in spain in june 2016 .
our vast systems of pipelines are used to transport crude oil, refined products and ngls to and from processing plants, terminals and storage facilities to meet critical energy needs .
should the market demands for hydrogen fuel increase with the introduction of fuel cell electric vehicles, the u. s. will need to produce and store large amounts of cost - effective hydrogen from domestic energy sources, such as natural gas, solar and wind, said daniel dedrick, sandia hydrogen program manager .
šmigán, p. , greksak, m. , kozánková, j. , buzek, f. , onderka, v. , wolf, i. : methanogenic bacteria as a key factor involved in changes of town gas stored in an underground reservoir. fems microbiol. lett .
used to enhance plasma welding and cutting operations, hydrogen gas is commonly mixed with argon for welding stainless steel .
a 2. 3 - km pipeline links the hydrogen plant to well f - 160, where the pilot project is located. the material used has been especially designed for hydrogen applications, based on polymers and minimizing joints .
hychico’s long - term goal is to provide future regional and international markets with “green” hydrogen, produced from renewable energies, and also with “green methane”, by using hydrogen as raw material and a sustainable source of carbon dioxide .
she determined that 10 percent above the average daily demand for 120 days should be stored. she then modeled how much hydrogen each city would need if hydrogen met 10, 25 and 100 percent of its driving fuel needs .
a geologist in sandia’s geotechnology and engineering group, lord for years has been involved in the geologic storage of the u. s. strategic petroleum reserve, the world’s largest emergency supply of crude oil .
i’ll avoid making co2 statements and just point out that hydrogen (methane gas) storage is already a success in the mid - us in the salt mines there. they’ve been using them as natural gas storage vessels for years, and has only had one incident where leakage led to minor disasters. this one time incident was even less a problem than some of the huge oil and gas disasters you see in ordinary pipeline transmission – so i say it is also a success inland, and not just off shore. this in the us anyway .
our services are extensive and include cleaning, purging, drying, emergency oxygenated aeration, inerting, cooling, blanketing, displacement, pneumatic testing pressure, leak detection, inspection for piping and storage tanks and more .
salt caverns such as the one depicted here could provide a low - cost solution for the geologic storage of hydrogen. the colors in the illustration represent depth, with blue as the deepest part of the cavern and red the most shallow. (image courtesy of sandia national laboratories) click on the thumbnail for a high - resolution image .
one answer currently being studied by the energy technologies institute (eti) might be a national network of turbines configured to run on hydrogen, which would be generated by gasification of gas and coal and stored underground in salt caverns, mainly offshore. this, the eti’s ccs programme manager andrew green told the engineer, has would have several advantages, providing a flexible generating capacity while still making the best use of capital plant which prefers to be operated at full capacity .
for smaller, more specialized applications, we offer hydrogen in high - pressure gas cylinders or liquid containers in a variety of sizes .
praxair maintains sophisticated hydrogen pipeline operations for large volume users in several key geographies with significant refining and chemical activity. we control and monitor each of our hydrogen pipelines to assure purity and to ensure that customers get the flow rate they want at the pressure they need .
our hydrogen is used to propel everything from land speed record - breaking vehicles, to fuel cell powered passenger cars, buses and forklifts .
hydrogen is essential in today’s refining industry for upgrading heavy crude oils into refined fuels, and helping to meet increasingly tight transportation fuel specifications .
as a heat treating furnace atmosphere, hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce a bright finish on steel parts. it also makes an excellent industrial quench gas because of its high heat transfer properties. when used as an alternate fuel, hydrogen plays a key role in reducing undesirable emissions .
methanogenesis is the biological production of methane (ch4). provided certain conditions are in place, it is generated by microorganisms using hydrogen (h2) and carbon dioxide (co2) for their metabolism. one potential use of underground stored hydrogen consists in tapping the microbial action present in reservoirs which, combined with carbon dioxide (either contained in or injected into the formation), may produce methane. thus, the reservoir would act as a
natural chemical reactor
that might use the large volumes involved and the energy resulting from the natural geothermal gradient. methane, the main element in natural gas, might be directly used as turbine fuel, ncg, and for heating, among other uses, with the natural gas infrastructure that is currently available. hychico started a pilot project to produce methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide by underground controlled methanogenesis. the efforts include the site’s biological characterization, identification and optimization of both operational (injection rate, h2, co2 mix composition, residence times, etc .) and reservoir parameters (temperature, physical and chemical properties of the formation water, etc .). its purpose is to model the behavior of the reservoir and have a “green methane” production feasibility study by mid 2018 .
there are 30 million petrol / diesel vehicles in this country and some 850 million in the world. conversion of just one million existing roadworthy cars to electric power with batteries of the same capacity as mine would provide some 10gw of electrical power storage capacity .
used as a power source, hydrogen gas fuels rockets and powers life - support systems and computers in space environments. it is also used for metal sintering and annealing .
the eti is working with the british geological survey (bgs) for this part of the project, surveying possible sites for salt caverns and establishing the potential for hydrogen storage. another part of the project, which engineering contractor foster wheeler, aims to investigate the scale, configuration and cost of the gasifiers and turbines needed to provide the generation capacity which would be needed for such a system — tens of gigawatts, green estimates, with each installation providing about a gigawatt
of course, whenever hydrogen is mentioned, safety concerns are close behind: the gas is, after all, flammable, explosive and difficult to contaon because of the very small dimensions of hydrogen molecules. ‘we’re looking carefully at security, ’ green said, explaining that the caverns would be formed so that they are still surrounded by thick, strong deposits of crystalline salt, which can contain hydrogen safely. ‘if these facilities were onshore, they’d be in highly industrialised areas, away from anywhere residential, but they’d be more likely to be offshore. ’
but hydrogen gas is a challenging substance to store. “because it’s a smaller molecule than methane, for example, it has the potential to leak easier and move faster through the rock, ” lord said .
another possibility for such systems is to use power generated by renewable capacity to electrolyse seawater during times of low demand but high production — such as night - time high tides and especially windy days — and use the caverns directly as energy storage. ‘that could be a minor use for the systems, ’ green said, ‘but we’re anticipating that gasifier - linked operation would be the majority application. ’
not to put too fine a point on it, but what you get when you combust hydrogen in an atmosphere which is 70% nitrogen is lots of invisible clouds of airborne anhydrous nitric acid looking for metal and human flesh to dissolve .
cord - ruwisch, r. , seitz, h. j. , conrad, r. : the capacity of hydrogenotrophic anaerobic bacteria to compete for traces of hydrogen depends on the redox potential of the terminal electron acceptor. arch. microbiol .
los angeles has three times the population of detroit and more than six and a half times the population of pittsburgh, but the nearest salt formations are in arizona, so lord included the cost of getting the stored hydrogen from arizona to los angeles .
france, beynes, ile de france: the gas company gaz de france has stored a gas with 50 - 60% hydrogen in an aquifer of 330 million nm 3 capacity for nearly 20 years. no gas losses or safety problems have been recorded .
england, teesside, yorkshire: the british company ici has stored 1 million nm 3 of nearly pure hydrogen in three salt caverns at a depth of about 400 m. the caverns have operated successfully for many years, and they are now operated by sabic .
sites suitable for storing co2 are no good for hydrogen, however, and this is where salt caverns come in. large salt deposits occur in many locations in and around the uk — reserves in the northwest have supplied a large chemicals sector for many years — and salt caverns, which can be made by dissolving away a void within the salt stratum, using techniques originally developed for salt - mining by ici, have the right sort of volume and strength to store a significant amount of pressurised hydrogen safely, green said .
‘one of the issues is whether you can store the hydrogen at a suitable pressure, ’ he explained. ‘it will come out of the gasifier plant under pressure and you don’t want to lose energy, either in letting it down or in compressing it further. ’
‘we’re developing most of the eti’s strategy on something called the energy systems modelling environment or esme, which is a national tool that looks at the whole energy system — generation, distribution, storage and consumption — and looks at finding the lowest - cost solution, ’ green explained. ‘what it indicates is that systems which adopt flexible generation but make the most effective use of capital equipment are extremely highly valued, because they’re the best way to complement baseload nuclear and intermittent renewables. ’
the work, lord said, could provide a roadmap for further research and demonstration activities, such as an examination of environmental issues and geologic formations in major metropolitan areas that can hold gas. researchers could then determine whether hydrogen gas mixes with residual gas or oil, reacts with minerals in the surrounding rock or poses any environmental concerns .
truche, l. , jodin - caumon, m. c. , lerouge, c. , berger, g. , mosser - ruck, r. , giffaut, e. , michau, n. : sulphide mineral reactions in clay - rich rock induced by high hydrogen pressure. application to disturbed or natural settings up to 250
the advantage of configuring turbines to burn hydrogen, rather than to operate directly on fossil fuels, is that it strips the carbon away from the fuel and captures it at source, rather than having to capture it post - combustion. gasification — converting fossil fuels (which might already be gases) into co2 and hydrogen — is a well - established process, and green explained that gasifiers, like most chemical plant, are best operated at a constant baseload, whereas gas turbines, if freed from the integration that’s necessary in a ccs - equipped power station, can be operated flexibly with no efficiency penalty, allowing them to be run to fill in for low production periods for renewables .
‘we launched this five - year project to get a better idea of how these systems might look in detail, ’ green said. ‘the costs are very important — putting in storage increases the cost, for example, so you have to balance that against the potential benefit. when we have an idea of the cost and technical issues, it’ll give us some idea of the key development issues that might be faced if you were going to use such systems, and at the very least it’ll provide us with more robust costings that we can use in our energy system modelling. ’
hard rock caverns are relatively unproven; only one site holds natural gas. but salt caverns, which are created 1, 000 to 6, 000 feet below ground by drilling wells in salt formations, pumping in undersaturated water to dissolve the salt, then pumping out the resulting brine, are used more extensively and already store hydrogen on a limited scale, lord said .
a useful counterpoint to the above technology - based discussions would be consideration of freeman dyson and allan savory’s work on natural rates of co2 capture and storage. professor dyson calculates that building just one inch of soil per century on currently available land enables absorption rates that match the co2 emissions attributed to human activity. much of this soil - building capability can be achieved using mr savory’s long - proven methods on livestock management. there are virtuous circles availae to solve these problems in an elegant fashion… in a world where energy returns on energy invesed are falling, it is doubtful that increasing the complexity of our designs is a successful strategy for future generations .
moreover, all the economic issues have been analysed for two different horizons, 2025 and 2050; concluding that the average price of electricity is the main cost. from the financial results, transport application represents a business case which, although in order has enough values of hydrogen demand to be stored, combination of different applications must be needed in order to make sense to the development of the cavern .
it’s time to talk to the germans about their plans to create carbon neutral natural gas. sequestration of carbon dioxide is a good thing but it is way cheaper to utilise the existing natural gas system! cng and lng is much easier to work with and store for vehicles, and natural gas turbines are great for peaking the high demand times. why go to all the lengths that hydrogen demands when the above - mentioned technology exists ?
for some time now, we have been working successfully on numerous projects for storing renewable energy in the form of compressed air and hydrogen in caverns. this means we can design and implement such projects thanks to the wealth of expertise we have gained. geothermal energy is another building block of renewable energies. to extract energy from the depths we can draw on our comprehensive knowledge in the fields of geology, drilling technology and commissioning of boreholes .
as your supply needs grow beyond bulk, praxair can provide small or large on - site hydrogen supply. praxair designs, installs, owns, and operates every system, so you don' t have to worry about maintenance. on - site plant sizes range from 9, 000scfd (10 ncmh) to as as large as 135mmscfd (150, 000 ncmh). our plants, whether small or large can offer reliable supply that meets your exact specifications for purity, pressure and flow .
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such evaluations should enable investors to understand potential economic returns; network operators and renewable energy producers to understand the technical attractiveness of such solutions and its integration in the overall energy system; technology developers to understand potentially addressable markets; and finally for policy makers and citizens to understand the benefits for the society as a whole, and how environmental risks are being evaluated and addressed. .
the hyunder project started in summer 2012 will address these issues in the next 24 months, paving the way to future demonstrations and deployment throughout europe .
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germany: 62% h 2 gas was stored in a salt cavern of 32, 000 m 3 at 80 - 100 bar .
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over the next few decades, the way that electricity is generated in the uk is predicted to change considerably. nuclear power stations will make a larger contribution to the total generating capacity, and fossil fuel stations will increasingly be built or retrofitted with equipment to capture their carbon dioxide emissions so that they can be compressed and stored, most likely in offshore repositories below the sea bed .
meanwhile, more renewable generating capacity, based around wind farms and tidal generation and possibly wave power, will be coming on stream from sites around the uk’s coast .
this represents a problem. nuclear power is inflexible — reactors work best when producing a stable amount of thermal energy throughout the day, which has to be fed to the boilers to raise steam. similarly, although conventional fossil - fuelled turbines can be operated flexibly, the addition of ccs technology again means that they are best run at as near a constant rate as possible .
but renewables are, by their nature, variable; the tides predictably so, the wind notoriously not. this means that some kind of variable capacity is going to be needed to top up the grid when renewables are falling short, whether that variation is regional or national .
the eti operates as a public - private partnership bringing together energy industry majors to accelerate the development of low - carbon energy technologies, often by doing the groundwork to remove some of the uncertainty around them and give financiers more confidence to invest in their development. this, so the strategy goes, is key to helping innovative green technologies bridge the gap from conceptual research to a deployable commercial offering .
this strategy is being formulated assuming that a ccs infrastructure is in place, green stressed. ‘you would be looking to store the co2 in a depleted oil or gas well, or saline aquifer, offshore, ’ he said. ‘these sorts of systems would be of a similar scale to a commercial power station, and this is part of the general roll - out of ccs. ’
one such development issue might be the turbines that would drive the generators, but green pointed out technology is available. ‘there are potentially two sorts of turbine that might work, ’ he said. ‘there is they type that’s currently used in gasifier - fed power stations, and there’s aero - derived turbines which are similar to jet engines. ’
green is keen to point out that this project, projected to cost £5million, is just a first step in a long process. ‘if successful, the benefits could potentially be huge, ’ he said .
the sooner that engineers see off these co2 - phobic lunatics, the better .
currently we are emitting 43 times the planets ability to absorb; we are asymptoting toward 1. 2% co2 .
i have a small electric vehicle with a 16kwhr capacity battery which can easily cover 75 miles on a single 6 to 8 hrs charge at home or to 80% full in half an hour at a high rate charging point. charging from my roof mounted pv panles is free in the day time when the sun is out or 6p / kwhr at night equivalent to over 500 mpg at current uk petrol prices .
if we wait for the trickledown of affordable second hand electric cars from the small new ev market we will wait forever so lets get started on converting our existing cars to electric power .
the largest gas in the earth’s atmosphere is nitrogen the largest ‘greenhouse gas’ in the earth’s atmosphere by far is water vapour. co2 is a minor component of the earth’s atmosphere, at barely one - third of one percent – 0. 0375 percent to be precise .
levels of co2 today are amongst the lowest they have been in the known history of this planet. co2 is absorbed naturally by water, the oceans, soil and all plant life. it is odourless, tasteless and non - toxic .
the largest and most significant source of co2 is underwater volcanic eruptions. just one of the larger submarine volcanoes can, when active, emit more co2 in a few days than all human activity might generate in a year. there are numerous eruptions on the seabed every year, almost none of which are ever noticed or reported outside the scientific community .
any impact of a higher level of co2, such as it might be, is logarithmic, not arithmetic. in other words, the higher the figure the less the effect. double today’s co2 level, and no - one would notice any difference .
ice - core research has demonstrated that any increase in average temperature levels lag any increase in co2 levels by some 500 to 600 years. so, even if there were a slow, long - term connection, there is no practical purpose in attempting to change co2 levels with a view to controlling average global temperatures. the proposition is scientifically absurd .
regarding motorised transport, it is not just the potential for co2 from fossil fuels impacting climate change but also the respiratory health problems arising from breathing pahs, nox, sox and ultra fine particulates emitted from vehicle exhaust pipes in city centres and along transport corridors around the world. hence my support my fully electric evs .
i’ve often seen ev batteries offered in this way. i’ve not seen an estimate of how many charge / discharge cycles a typical ev battery will last for, but surely this could seriously reduce their life .
one item to consider is the impact of gasification and carbon capture on overall combined cycle plant efficiency. in order to be economically competitive an h2 fueled gas turbine powerplant requires considerably higher efficiency than current designs. this has been the subject of funded research in the united states, led by the department of energy in cooperation with siemens and general electric .
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hychico submitted an environmental impact assessment study and held a public hearing in coordination with the ministry for environmental affairs and sustainable development control of the province of chubut. the study was approved in may 2014 .
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even so, los angeles’ modeled costs are significantly less than those for detroit and pittsburgh. salt formations in arizona are thicker than those for detroit and pittsburgh, with larger and fewer caverns. houston has the best conditions of the four cities because the gulf coast offers large, deep salt formations .
other fuels are already stored geologically. oil from the strategic petroleum reserve, for example, is held in large man - made caverns along the gulf coast. natural gas is stored in more than 400 geologic sites to meet winter heating demands .
depleted oil and gas reservoirs and aquifers initially seem the most economically attractive options, she said. “just looking at numbers, because they can hold such a larger volume relative to any cavern you create, they look cheaper, ” she said .
with a salt cavern or hard rock cavern, “there are no permeability issues, there’s really no way anything can leak, ” she said. “you can bring more product in and out, and that will, in the long run, decrease your costs. ”
sandia national laboratories is a multi - program laboratory operated by sandia corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of lockheed martin corp. , for the u. s. department of energy’s national nuclear security administration. with main facilities in albuquerque, n. m. , and livermore, calif. , sandia has major r & d responsibilities in national security, energy and environmental technologies and economic competitiveness .
sandia news media contact: mike janes, mejanes @ sandia. gov, (925) 294 - 2447
sandia national laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by national technology and engineering solutions of sandia, llc. , a wholly owned subsidiary of honeywell international, inc. , for the u. s. department of energy’s national nuclear security administration under contract de - na - 0003525 .
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underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns , salt domes and depleted oil/gas fields . large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by ici for many years without any difficulties . the storage of large quantities of hydrogen underground in solution-mined salt domes , aquifers or excavated rock caverns or mines can function as grid energy storage which is essential for the hydrogen economy . by using a turboexpander the electricity needs for compressed storage on 200 bar amounts to 2.1 % of the energy content . 
underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted oil/gas fields. large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by ici for many years without any difficulties. the storage of large quantities of hydrogen underground in solution-mined salt domes, aquifers or excavated rock caverns or mines can function as grid energy storage which is essential for the hydrogen economy. by using a turboexpander the electricity needs for compressed storage on 200 bar amounts to 2.1% of the energy content.
underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted oil/gas fields. large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by ici for many years without any difficulties. the storage of large quantities of hydrogen underground in solution-mined salt domes, aquifers or excavated rock caverns or mines can function as grid energy storage which is essential for the hydrogen economy. by using a turboexpander the electricity needs for compressed storage on 200 bar amounts to 2.1% of the energy content.