text: Explicit extrinsic rewards and punishments have sometimes been found to have a counterintuitively inverse effect on behaviors when compared to intrinsic rewards.This may be because such extrinsic incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which may make the thus-incentivized behaviors less desirable.People prefer altruism in others when it appears to be due to a personality characteristic rather than overt reputational concerns; simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of action may reduce them.This may be used as a derogatory tactic against altruists ("you're just virtue signalling"), especially by those who are non-cooperators.A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good.Group selection.It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as David Sloan Wilson that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group, even if these adaptations are detrimental at the individual level.Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory, the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons.Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while directing prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (see also in-group favoritism).Many other evolutionary scientists have criticized group selection theory.Such explanations do not imply that humans consciously calculate how to increase their inclusive fitness when doing altruistic acts.Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote certain altruistic behaviors.